INTRODUCTION TO AGGRESSION

March 1, 2024 Rebecca Sivyer

AGGRESSION SPECIFICATION

Neural and hormonal mechanisms in aggression, including the roles of the limbic system, serotonin and testosterone. Genetic factors in aggression, including the MAOA gene.
The ethological explanation of aggression, including reference to innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns. Evolutionary explanations of human aggression.
Social psychological explanations of human aggression include the frustration-aggression hypothesis, social learning theory as applied to human aggression, and de-individuation.
Institutional aggression in the context of prisons: dispositional and situational explanations.
Media influences on aggression, including the effects of computer games. The role of desensitisation, disinhibition and cognitive priming.

In the realm of human aggression, the origins of this behaviour have long been a subject of controversy and debate. Some biologists propose that there exist "genetically determined tendencies" toward aggression within the human species. Conversely, behaviourists argue that aggression is a product of life experiences and learning.

This exploration of aggression delves into the intricate interplay of heredity, brain abnormalities, hormones, evolution, and the environment, seeking to unravel their respective roles in shaping human aggression.

The question at hand is far from straightforward, . Currently the consensus is that both heredity and environmental factors significantly contribute to the development of human of aggression.

BEFORE WE START: WHAT IS AGGRESSION?

A key initial step involved differentiating between affective aggression, which is highly emotional, and non-affective aggression, which is more 'cold-blooded' and unemotional. Predatory attacks, as part of feeding behaviour, are an example of non-affective aggression. It is important to note that predatory or defensive actions between different species are usually not classified as aggression.

In psychology and other social and behavioural sciences, aggression is defined as any apparent behaviour among members of the same species intended to inflict pain or harm on another individual.

While relatively rare, human aggression manifests in various forms and can be physical, mental, or verbal. This aggression often stems from conflicts over limited resources, such as territory, food, and mates, leading to clashes between individual interests.

Numerous classifications of aggression based on the conditions leading up to the aggressive act have been proposed. One notable classification is by Moyer (1968), who identified several types:

Predatory attack
Inter-male aggression
Fear-induced aggression
Irritable aggression
Territorial aggression
Maternal or parental-defensive aggression
Self-defensive aggression
Aggression related to social conflict
Instrumental aggression

AGGRESSION SHOULD NOT BE CONFUSED WITH

Aggression is primarily associated with behaviours that have the intent to cause physical or psychological harm.

Assertiveness vs. Aggression: Assertiveness is often confused with aggression, but they are fundamentally different. Assertiveness involves expressing one's opinions, needs, and feelings confidently and directly without violating the rights of others. It's a positive, respectful communication style. On the other hand, aggression is about imposing one's will or harming others, either physically or psychologically. An "aggressive" salesperson often assertively pursues sales, not aggressively, unless they use intimidation or deceit.
Dominance vs Aggression: Dominance behaviour is about establishing or maintaining a higher status, often seen in social hierarchies. It involves exerting power, influence, or control over others but does not necessarily involve aggression. For example, in shows like "The Apprentice," contestants may display dominance through leadership, persuasion, or strategic thinking rather than aggressive behaviour. Aggression can be a part of dominance displays, but the two are not synonymous.
Dominance refers to a position of power, influence, or control over others. It's a relational concept that implies a higher status in a social hierarchy. Dominance can be established and maintained through various means, including social skills, leadership qualities, resource control, and, in some cases, intimidation or threat. However, dominance does not necessarily involve physical force or harm. In social groups, including human societies and animal packs, dominant individuals may command respect, resources, and decision-making authority without aggression. Aggression can be a strategy to achieve dominance, but it's not the only means, nor is it always related to dominance struggles.
Non-violent crimes typically involve illegal activities that do not use or threaten physical force against others. Examples include theft, fraud, embezzlement, and drug offences.

CRIMINALITY VERSUS AGGRESSION

Habitual Criminal: This type of criminal repeatedly engages in criminal activity and often has a long history of criminal behaviour. Habitual criminals may commit the same type of crime repeatedly, indicating a pattern in their conduct.

Legalistic Criminals commit crimes strictly defined by law. They are often involved in activities that are illegal by the letter of the law but not harmful or dangerous to others.

Moralistic Criminals: These criminals commit crimes based on a personal or ideological belief system. Their actions are often driven by a conviction that they are morally justified,

Psychopathic Criminals: Characterised by a lack of empathy and remorse and often engaging in manipulative and sometimes violent behaviour, psychopathic criminals can be involved in a range of criminal activities.

Institutional Criminals or White-Collar Criminals: These individuals commit crimes within the context of their occupation or profession, such as embezzlement, fraud, or insider trading, and are characterised by deceit.

Situational or Occasional Criminals commit crimes in specific situations or under certain circumstances. Their criminal behaviour is not consistent or habitual but often results from external pressures or opportunities presented in a particular context.

Professional Criminals: This group is characterised by individuals who engage in crime as a career. They are skilled, dedicate significant time and effort to planning their crimes, and often commit more sophisticated or high-level crimes.

Organised Criminals: Involved in structured criminal enterprises, these criminals are part of groups or organisations that engage in extensive criminal activities., including drugs and human trafficking,

CAN WE OPERATIONALISE AGGRESSION?

A significant challenge in this field, particularly relevant to the study of aggression, is the lack of a universally accepted operational definition. Researchers often employ varying definitions of aggression.,

Studies labelled as aggression research may not directly address aggression per se. For instance, research on genes may not apply to other forms of aggressive behaviour. Similarly, studies in areas like deindividuation often focus on concepts like deception rather than directly on aggression.

Assertiveness is a form of behaviour characterized by confident and self-assured expression of opinions and needs without aggression. It's an important construct in psychology because it represents a healthy way of expressing one's desires and defending one's rights.

Dominance: Studies on dominance often focus on social hierarchy, leadership, and group control dynamics. Research on testosterone, for instance, explores how this hormone might influence dominance behaviours, but it's important to distinguish these from aggression.

"Naughtiness" or Mischievous Behaviors: These are often studied in the context of child psychology and development. Such behaviours can be indicators of boundary-testing or a response to various environmental factors, and they don't necessarily equate to aggression.

Some studies may focus on specific forms of aggression (e.g., cyberbullying, domestic violence), while others might investigate aggression more broadly.

Limitations of Operational Definitions:

How aggression is defined and measured can limit the scope of a study. For example, if a study only considers physical aggression, it might overlook other significant forms like verbal or psychological aggression. These limitations can impact how we interpret and apply research.

Many operational definitions of aggression are too broad or imprecise; they can lead to irrelevant or inaccurate assumptions about the studied behaviour. For instance, defining aggression in children as “breaking school rules at playtime” is an overly broad operationalisation. This definition might include behaviours that are not aggressive, leading to misleading conclusions. Researchers using a more specific operationalisation, such as “unwanted physical contact,” would likely yield different, potentially more accurate results. This discrepancy highlights the importance of precise and contextually appropriate operational definitions.

Provoking or initiating aggression in a laboratory setting is not permissible due to the potential harm it could cause participants. This limitation significantly impacts the scope and nature of aggression research. As a result, many studies rely on simulations, self-reports, observational methods, or historical data analysis, which may not fully capture the complexity of aggressive behaviour in real-life situations. More importantly,as most research in this field is non-experimental, cause and effect can not be applied.

VULNERABILITIES TO CRIMINALITY AND AGGRESSION

Being under the influence of alcohol and alcohol
History of childhood maltreatment
Genetic factors: MAOA gene
Situational factors: Heat, noise, crowding
Location: Predominantly urban settings in the vicinity of gangs
Gender: Majority male involvement in crimes
Age: Higher incidence in younger populations
Class: Predominantly working class or economically disadvantaged
Family structure: Single-parent households, absence of the father, Dysfunctional relationships with family members and partners
Lower intelligence levels
Mental health issues
Personality: Asocial Value System, Impulsive, Entitlement

PERSONALITIES OF CRIMINALS AND AGGRESSIVE INDIVIDUALS

Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD): Individuals with APD often exhibit a persistent pattern of disregard for the rights and feelings of others. This lack of empathy and disregard for social norms and the law can lead to aggressive and criminal behaviour. They may act aggressively to achieve personal goals or out of impulsive reaction to perceived threats or challenges.
: Narcissistic individuals have an inflated sense of self-importance and a deep need for excessive attention and admiration. When these needs are not met, or when they perceive criticism or a threat to their self-esteem, they may react aggressively. Their lack of empathy can also contribute to aggressive responses, as they may have little regard for the impact of their actions on others.

SOME CRIME STATISTICS ON WHO COMMITS CRIME

SEXUAL OFFENDERS displayed high rates of mental illness, sexual disorders, personality disorders and substance abuse. However, there were differences between rapists and child molesters. Rapists had higher rates of personality disorder overall (76% versus 60%) and alcohol and substance abuse than child molesters, who had higher rates of sexual disorders (78% versus 24%). Rapists had higher rates of cluster B personality disorders, especially antisocial and borderline, than child molesters (66% versus 40%), whereas child molesters had higher rates of cluster C disorder (14% versus 6%).

SIVYER PSYCHOLOGY