SPECIFICATION: Explanations of Bowlby’s monotropic theory. The concepts of a critical period and an internal working model.

Topic: BOWLBY’S MONOTROPIC THEORY

• Understand Bowlby’s theory of attachment

• Key Concepts:

  Infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, ethological theory, imprinting, evolution, genetics, individual differences, naturalistic observation, intervention, temperament, correlation vs. causation, nature vs. nurture

BOWLBY’S MONOTROPIC THEORY OF ATTACHMENT

Bowlby’s Theory is based on seven key concepts:

• The critical period when attachment should occur

• Innate programming to attach (evolutionary adaptation)

• Continuity hypothesis

• Internal working model

• Monotropy

• Proximity

• Social releases

• ¨‘C-I-C-I-M-P-S’

INTRODUCTION

Attachment theory is the joint work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991). Drawing on concepts from ethology, evolution, cybernetics, information processing, developmental psychology, and psychoanalysis, John Bowlby formulated the basic principles of his attachment theory. He exalted the primary caregiver status by revolutionising how the Western world viewed the role of bonding and attachment. Bowlby’s theories were based on juvenile patients in his clinical practice, where he observed the effects of disrupted bonds through separation, deprivation, and bereavement.

HUMAN BABIES ARE BORN PREMATURE

Bowlby thought human babies had a biological need to attach to a primary caregiver because they were so completely useless and helpless at birth. Humans, like kangaroos, have been naturally selected to deliver babies prematurely. The human brain is not a complete organ at birth. It is in essence premature or at least, not fully developed. The brain needs at least twelve years for broad development and twenty to twenty-five years for full development. Indeed, by one assessment, a human foetus would have to undergo a gestation period of eighteen to twenty-one months instead of the usual nine to be born at a neurological and cognitive development stage comparable to that of a newborn chimpanzee. The traditional explanation for the nine-month gestation period and helpless newborn is that natural selection favoured childbirth at an earlier stage of foetal development to accommodate a brain size that could fit through the narrower hips that resulted from bipedalism.

Bowlby believed that as humans are born completely helpless at birth, they would surely die without the care and love of a primary caregiver. Bowlby believed that attachment behaviours have been naturally selected. Therefore, mothers must have been naturally selected to attach to and love their offspring; if they were not programmed to bond immediately, many newborns would not survive or be severely neglected. At least those uncaring parenting genes don’t get passed on though. .

Bowlby proposed infants had an innate tendency to form attachments with one caregiver, usually the mother, who was the most sensitive to their needs. Bowlby saw this attachment as unique, the first to develop, and the strongest of all as it formed a model template of future relationships the child can expect from others, also known as the continuity hypothesis.

This internal working model created a consistency between early emotional experiences from the primary attachment figure and later relationships as it teaches a child what relationships are like and how people behave within them. This also helped children form an opinion of themselves and shaped their attachment types. This experience is then used to predict future relationships in both intimate partners and peer relations.

Bowlby called his theory ‘monotropic as he believed that babies needed to form a quality relationship with one person. This attachment must be formed in the ‘critical period’ before the child reaches the age of 2-3 years, providing the baby with a template (‘internal working model’) for all future relationships.

IN SUMMARY

The core elements of Bowlby’s theory are that early parental care forms the prototype for future relationships through the internal working model. Infants become attached to individuals, who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, and who remain consistent caregivers during a critical period in their development (from birth to two and a half years of age). 

CRITICAL PERIODS

¨Bowlby borrowed the concept of the critical period from the work of Lorenz, who pointed to the rapid formation of attachments in animals.

¨Bowlby believed that attachment between a caregiver and an infant should not be disrupted before the age of 2 ½ and that if this age hadn’t formed attachments, they would have difficulty forming them. Key Study: Bowlby's Monotropic Attachment Theory 1969

Evolutionary theorists propose a sensitive period where the attachment can form, with Bowlby proposing this occurs from the 3-4 month mark and with attachment more difficult in the following months.

INNATE PROGRAMMING

¨Bowlby believed that attachment is innate or inborn.

Attachment behaviours are then biologically programmed into a baby from birth to help them survive, so infants have an innate drive to survive.

THE CONTINUITY HYPOTHESIS

The continuity hypothesis proposes a link between early attachment and later relationships with poorly attached children, who have more difficulty in childhood and adulthood. In contrast, securely attached children form more stable relationships.

Secondary attachment figures may also aid social development and be a safety net for healthy psychological well-being. Bowlby called this his monotropic theory as he believed babies would have one special attachment figure for whom they form a special bond. In most cases, this may be the mother, but this depended on who was most sensitive to the child’s needs rather than who spent the most time with them.

This sees a continuity between early attachment types reflected in later relationships in both childhood and adulthood.

THE INTERNAL WORKING MODEL

Bowlby’s Internal Working Model is similar to the concept of a Schema or “template”.

• The relationship you have with your key caregiver forms a mental representation or a model for what relationships are like. It can therefore have a powerful effect on the nature of a child’s future relationship and their ability to be a parent.

• ¨Secure child= Adults who are socially and emotionally competent in relationships so are more likely to have successful relationships

• The relationship with the primary caregiver would ultimately act as a template and develop the infant’s expectations of future relationships with others. Bowlby referred to this as the internal working model. This also provided the child with insight into their caregiver’s behaviour and some level of influence so a relationship could form between the two.

MONOTROPY

• ¨The idea that infants have one special bond normally with the biological mother and that this relationship is special and more important than any other.

• ¨He believed a female substitute would do if it weren’t the biological mother.

PROXIMITY

• Seeking closeness to the caregiver for evolutionary ‘survival’ reasons

• ¨Biological pre-programmed

• Bowlby suggested that this innate drive to form attachments ensures they remain near a caregiver that will protect and feed them, increasing their chances of survival and reproducing.

• Bowlby believed the primary caregiver provided a safe base for them to explore the world and return to when threatened. An attachment was also seen to aid cognitive development and provide an opportunity to learn through imitation.

SOCIAL RELEASERS

Social releasers are specific behaviours infants exhibit that naturally elicit caregiving responses from adults. These instinctual behaviours form and strengthen the attachment bond between the infant and the caregiver. Here's a list of common social releasers and the responses they typically elicit:

1. Crying: Signals distress or discomfort, prompting the caregiver to soothe, comfort, or address the infant's needs.

2. Smiling: Encourages interaction and bonding; often elicits smiles and affectionate responses from the caregiver.

3. Gazing or Looking: Attracts the caregiver's attention and engages them in mutual eye contact, fostering connection and emotional synchrony.

4. Coos and Babbling: Invites verbal interaction and communication from the caregiver, strengthening the social bond.

5. Reaching Out: Indicates a desire for closeness or to be held, prompting the caregiver to pick up, hold, or cuddle the infant.

6. Mimicry: When infants mimic facial expressions or gestures, it encourages continued social interaction and teaches the infant about social cues.

7. Laughing: Like smiling, laughing is a positive feedback mechanism that encourages caregivers to engage in playful interactions.

8. Clutching or Grasping: An instinctive reaction to being held, which can reassure the caregiver of the infant's engagement and need for security.

These social releasers are crucial in the early stages of life, as they play a key role in the development of attachment by ensuring that caregivers provide the necessary care and emotional support. They are part of an evolutionary mechanism designed to enhance infant survival by maintaining proximity to the caregiver.

RESEARCH

There is support for many of the key concepts in Bowlby’s theory, for example,

• HARLOW MONKEYS: Harlow’s findings support the concept of the INTERNAL WORKING MODEL having continuity because the monkey instinctively sought to be close to one specific mother monkey. ¨It also supports the idea of the internal working model - monkeys didn’t form adequate attachments and relationships as infant monkeys, so they went on to become bad mothers, suggesting that the monkeys didn’t know how to look after infants

• SCROUFE (MINNESOTA LONGITUDINAL STUDY) began in 1975 and is currently in its 36th year.

  The Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation investigated how certain interpersonal experiences encountered yearly in life (at age 1) systematically predict how people think, feel, and behave in their adult romantic relationships approximately 20 years later.

  Procedures: Longitudinal study from 1975 – preset

  Sroufe followed a cohort of children from the age of one who had been assessed in the strange situation. Children are assessed by a range of people: parents, peers, teachers, and psychologists about how they relate to other people.

  Findings: It was found that securely attached infants were more popular as they got older, had the highest social competence and showed the most empathy towards others. This directly supports Bowlby's theory that the bond formed with a primary caregiver is pivotal for healthy development across the lifespan. The results show that early secure attachments predict positive outcomes, affirming the continuity of emotional and social development from early childhood into adulthood.

• HAZAN AND SHAVER (LOVE QUIZ) Hazan and Shaver (1987) discovered that infants who had been securely attached when children went on to have happy, lasting and trusting relationships as adults, yet insecurely attached infants had less successful adult relationships. This evidence supports the internal working model.

• BAILY (2007) Evidence that the internal working model is transmitted through family generations. Their study involved 99 mothers with one-year-old babies, where mothers who reported having poor attachments with their parents were more likely to be observed as having poor attachments with their children. This finding underscores the theory that attachment patterns can be inherited, as the internal working model developed in childhood influences how individuals interact with their children, demonstrating a cyclical nature of attachment behaviours across generations.

• MCCARTHY: McCarthy's study provides insight into the long-term impact of early attachment types on adult relationships. In her research, McCarthy (1999) explored the connection between attachment styles in early childhood and the quality of adult romantic relationships. She found that individuals classified as securely attached in infancy tended to have healthier, more stable romantic relationships in adulthood. Conversely, those with insecure attachments in childhood—either avoidant or ambivalent—were more likely to experience difficulties in forming and maintaining intimate relationships.

• SIMPSON: Jeffry Simpson's longitudinal study is a significant piece of research in developmental psychology, particularly in the study of attachment theory. Simpson's work has contributed to understanding how early attachment security impacts relationships and behaviours in adulthood.

  In his research, Simpson examined individuals classified in infancy as securely or insecurely attached to their caregivers, based on the Strange Situation procedure developed by Ainsworth. He followed these individuals into adolescence and adulthood to observe how their early attachment styles influenced their romantic relationships, social functioning, and emotional well-being.

• Key Findings:

  • Stability of Attachment Styles: Simpson's study proved that early attachment styles, whether secure or insecure, tend to remain stable over time and influence later relationship dynamics.

  • Impact on Romantic Relationships: Individuals with secure attachments in infancy were found to have more trusting, long-lasting romantic relationships in adulthood. They were also better at seeking and providing support to their partners.

  • Resilience and Emotional Regulation: Securely attached individuals demonstrated greater resilience in relationship challenges and were more adept at regulating emotions.

  • Influence on Social Competence: The study also highlighted that early secure attachments were linked to higher levels of social competence, including better conflict resolution skills and more positive interactions with peers

MYRON-WILSON SMITH (1998) BULLYING: Myron-Wilson & Smith (1998) conducted a longitudinal study on 196 seven to eleven-year-olds. The findings showed the following association between early attachment type and bullying:

• Secure attachment Generally not involved in bullying behaviour

• Insecure avoidant More likely to be the victims of bullying

• Insecure resistance: More likely to be the bullies!

MARY MAIN: Adult Attachment Interview

Mary Main and her colleagues developed the Adult Attachment Interview that asked for descriptions of early attachment-related events and for the adults’ sense of how these relationships and events had affected adult personalities (George, Kaplan, & Main, 1984).

It is noteworthy that the Adult Attachment Interview assessed “the security of the self about attachment in its generality rather than about any particular present or past relationship” (Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985), i.e. the general state of mind regarding attachment rather than how one attached to another specific individual.

Lorenz's study into “imprinting” with geese supports an innate drive to form attachments. He demonstrated how geese separated from their natural mothers would imprint and form an attachment towards him or any moving object they had been first exposed to. This supports the idea that animals and possibly humans have an innate drive to form attachments as similar behaviour is seen across other species.

Harlow’s study with monkeys demonstrated the importance of attachment figures. Baby monkeys raised only with their mothers for the first six months appear socially inept and show no desire or interest in engaging with their peers, highlighting the crucial sensitive period Bowlby described.

However, both studies were animal studies, and their findings may not necessarily translate to humans due to clear differences in intelligence. Also, with monkeys, their behaviour may be more competitive for survival/resources than humans and therefore lack internal validity as this may not necessarily measure human behaviour. Also, such studies may lack external validity and wider generalisation into humans for this reason, also due to such differences.

A case study of Genie, a young girl raised in total isolation up until the age of 13 and abused by her father, adds weight to the problems that can follow without attachment aiding development. Even after rescue her cognitive development was limited and she struggled to learn language skills beyond the very basics. Behavioural problems were also evident, and she was never seen to recover. Bowlby’s emphasis on the early development of attachments and the consequences of failure to form this for cognitive development and the development of an internal working model appears to have credibility here.

The Koluchova twins disprove Bowlby’s theory of a time-sensitive period to form attachments and support learning explanations. The two boys were raised in isolation beyond this sensitive period and, once rescued, through the efforts of their adoptive mothers, showed no signs of abnormal behaviour at age 14 when re-examined. They had close attachments to their mothers and went on to live normal lives into adulthood with stable relationships. This highlights the role of “nurture” and how even this can mitigate later life for children who do not form attachments. More importantly, the real-world practical application here suggests that children in foster care can lead normal lives if attachments are disrupted with the right support.

However, both were isolated case studies and it is difficult to know for certain whether Genie had any mental impairment from birth which may have factored in. With the twins, it has been argued they always had each other to form attachments too which may have mitigated their lack of a primary caregiver. Therefore, wider generalisation is difficult based on these two studies alone as they may lack internal validity and not measure the true effects of what no attachment can do to people in the long term.

̈ EVALUATION OF BOWLB’S MONOTROPIC THEORY

Evaluating Bowlby's monotropic theory involves examining its seven core principles and the extent to which research supports each component. This theory has been foundational in understanding attachment, proposing that early relationships between infants and their primary caregivers have profound and lasting impacts on individuals' emotional and social development.

THE CRITICAL PERIOD
Research supports Bowlby's assertion of a critical period for attachment formation, typically within the first 6 months to 2 years of life. Rutter's studies on privation, showing long-term difficulties in children who failed to form attachments within this period, underscore the theory's validity. However, it's important to note that Rutter focused on privation (the absence of any attachment) rather than disruption of attachment, adding nuance to our understanding of critical periods.

INNATE PROGRAMMING TO ATTACH (EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION)
Substantial evidence supports the idea that infants are innately programmed to form attachments, as seen in behaviors such as social releasers, reciprocity, and interactional synchrony. Experiments like the "still face" experiment and studies measuring parents' physiological responses to their babies' crying highlight this innate drive and its evolutionary benefits, emphasizing the natural predisposition towards attachment.

CONTINUITY HYPOTHESIS
Longitudinal studies, such as those conducted by Sroufe, Smith, and others, provide evidence for the continuity hypothesis, which suggests that early attachment styles predict later emotional and social outcomes. These studies have traced the developmental trajectories of individuals from infancy into adulthood, reinforcing the idea that secure early attachments contribute to healthier emotional and relational functioning later in life.

INTERNAL WORKING MODEL
Research by McCarthy and others has lent support to the concept of the internal working model, showing how early attachment experiences shape perceptions of oneself and others, influencing future relationships. These studies demonstrate that individuals with secure attachments in infancy tend to have more positive self-concepts and more trusting, stable relationships in adulthood.

MONOTROPY
Bowlby's concept of monotropy, the idea that infants have an innate tendency to attach to a single main attachment figure, has received mixed evidence. While Robertson and Robertson's studies on temporary separation challenged the exclusivity aspect of monotropy, suggesting that children can form multiple significant attachments, the core notion that there's often a primary figure who plays a crucial role in the child's development is widely acknowledged.

PROXIMITY
The importance of proximity in forming secure attachments is well-supported by research, notably through Ainsworth's Strange Situation experiments. These studies have shown that infants use their caregivers as a secure base to explore their environment, underscoring the significance of physical closeness in developing secure attachments.

SOCIAL RELEASERS
The concept of social releasers, behaviours in infants that elicit caregiving responses, is well-supported by empirical evidence. These behaviours, such as crying, smiling, and cooing, play a key role in the formation and maintenance of attachment by ensuring that caregivers provide attention and meet the infant's needs, reinforcing Bowlby's views on the evolutionary functions of attachment.

In summary, while robust research supports most of Bowlby's principles within his monotropic theory, the concept of monotropy itself has received mixed evidence, particularly regarding the exclusivity of a single attachment figure. Nonetheless, the overarching framework of Bowlby's theory remains influential in understanding attachment's critical role in human development.

Economic Implications / Socially Sensitive

̈ Has led Mothers to stay at home and still hurts mothers today. There is still the idea amongst some that mothers should not work.

̈ Erica Burman (1994) and other feminists state that it places a terrible burden of responsibility on mothers, pushing them into particular lifestyle choices and placing the blame on them if anything goes wrong in a child’s life.

̈ Further evidence shows that good substitute care in a nursery, the father or a family member does not harm social development. So a mother can happily return to work after having a child and remain economically active contradicting Bowlby’s theory.

Mental health

•  Poor mental health and social relationships are also believed to be affected by the lack of an internal working model. Children with attachment disorder have no preferred attachment figure and struggle to relate and interact with others, which is evident before the age of five. This has been classed as a distinct psychiatric condition within the DSM. Any attachments behaviour gets the caregiver’s attention when the child needs looking after such as responding to: cooing, babbling, crying, would therefore, have been biologically hardwired into the brains of both infant and Mother; as these behaviours that have survival value for attachment. Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) is described in clinical literature as a severe and relatively uncommon disorder that can affect children.[1][2] RAD is characterized by markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating socially in most contexts. It can take the form of a persistent failure to initiate or respond to most social interactions in a developmentally appropriate way—known as the "inhibited form"—or can present itself as indiscriminate sociability, such as excessive familiarity with relative strangers—known as the "disinhibited form". T.

  RAD arises from a failure to form normal attachments to primary caregivers in early childhood. Such a failure could result from severe early experiences of neglect, abuse, abrupt separation from caregivers between the ages of six months and three years, frequent change of caregivers, or a lack of caregiver responsiveness to a child's communicative efforts. Not all, or even most such experiences, result in the disorder.[5] It is differentiated from pervasive developmental disorder or developmental delay and from possibly comorbid conditions such as intellectual disability, all of which can affect attachment behaviour. The criteria for a diagnosis of a reactive attachment disorder are very different from the criteria used in the assessment or categorization of attachment styles, such as insecure or disorganized attachment.

  Children with RAD are presumed to have grossly disturbed internal working models of relationships, which may lead to interpersonal and behavioural difficulties in later life. There are few studies of long-term effects, and there is a lack of clarity about the disorder's presentation beyond the age of five.[6][7] However, the opening of orphanages in Eastern Europe following the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s provided opportunities for research on infants and toddlers brought up in very deprived conditions. Such research broadened the understanding of attachment disorders' prevalence, causes, mechanism, and assessment. It led to efforts from the late 1990s to develop treatment and prevention programs and better assessment methods. Mainstream theorists in the field have proposed that a broader range of conditions arising from problems with attachment should be defined beyond current classifications.[8]

  Mainstream treatment and prevention programs that target RAD and other problematic early attachment behaviors are based on attachment theory and concentrate on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver, or if that is not possible, placing the child with a different caregiver.[9] Most such strategies are in the process of being evaluated. Mainstream practitioners and theorists have presented significant criticism of the diagnosis and treatment of alleged reactive attachment disorder or attachment disorder within the controversial field commonly known as attachment therapy. Attachment therapy has a scientifically unsupported theoretical base and uses diagnostic criteria or symptom lists unrelated to criteria under ICD-10 or DSM-IV-TR or to attachment behaviours. A range of treatment approaches are used in attachment therapy, some of which are physically and psychologically coercive and considered to be antithetical to attachment theory.[10

  Criteria FOR RAD

  ICD-10 describes reactive attachment disorder of childhood, known as RAD, and disinhibited attachment disorder, less well known as DAD. DSM-IV-TR also describes reactive attachment disorder of infancy or early childhood divided into two subtypes, inhibited type and disinhibited type, both known as RAD. The two classifications are similar, and both include the following:

  • Markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts (e.g., the child is avoidant or unresponsive to care when offered by caregivers or is indiscriminately affectionate with strangers);[32]

  • the disturbance is not accounted for solely by developmental delay and does not meet the criteria for pervasive developmental disorder;

  • onset before five years of age (there is no age specified before five years of age at which RAD cannot be diagnosed);[32]

  • a history of significant neglect;

  • an implicit lack of identifiable, preferred attachment figure.

  ICD-10 states about the inhibited form only that the syndrome probably occurs as a direct result of severe parental neglect, abuse, or serious mishandling. DSM states that there must be a history of "pathogenic care" defined as persistent disregard of the child's basic emotional or physical needs or repeated changes in primary caregiver that prevent the formation of a discriminatory or selective attachment presumed to account for the disorder. For this reason, part of the diagnosis is the child's history of care rather than observation of symptoms.