Explore gender bias in psychology, including alpha bias, which exaggerates differences between genders, and beta bias, which minimises or ignores them. Alpha bias is evident in Freud’s psychodynamic theory, which portrays female development as inferior to males, and in evolutionary psychology, which emphasises distinct adaptive roles for men and women. In contrast, beta bias assumes no significant differences between genders, often applying male-based research to both sexes. Much of early psychological research exhibited androcentric beta bias, generalising male findings to women. Recognising these biases is crucial for critically evaluating psychological research.

Culture plays a crucial role in shaping psychological research and theory. Cultural bias occurs when research findings are applied universally despite cultural differences. Ethnocentrism leads to viewing one's culture as the standard, often resulting in biased interpretations of behaviour. In contrast, cultural relativism recognises that behaviour must be understood within its cultural context.

Psychologists distinguish between etic and emic approaches. An etic approach derives theories and applies them universally, often imposing Western norms onto other cultures (imposed etic). In contrast, an emic approach explores behaviour from within a culture, acknowledging unique social and environmental influences. Recognising these biases is essential for conducting fair and representative psychological research.

Explore the debate between free will and determinism in psychology. Does human behaviour result from conscious choice, or is it shaped by biological, environmental, or unconscious forces? From hard determinism, which rejects free will entirely, to soft determinism, which allows for some autonomy, this discussion has significant implications for science, ethics, and personal responsibility.

THE NATURE VS NURTURE DEBATE

Delve into the enduring debate of nature versus nurture: is our behaviour shaped more by genetic inheritance (nature) or by our environment and experiences (nurture)? While nature emphasises heredity and biological predispositions, nurture focuses on upbringing, culture, and external influences. Modern psychology adopts the interactionist approach, acknowledging that behaviour is influenced by both forces working together. For example, a genetic predisposition for a trait may only manifest in certain environmental conditions, highlighting the intricate balance of nature and nurture in shaping who we are..

Explore the debate between holism and reductionism in psychology. Should behaviour be understood as a sum of its parts or as a whole, complex system? Reductionism breaks behaviour into biological (genes, neurochemistry) or environmental (stimulus-response) explanations, while holism considers the broader picture, including social and cognitive influences. Understanding these levels of explanation is key to interpreting psychological phenomena

Idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation

Ethical implications of research studies and theory, including reference to social sensitivity.